5. Using Information

Plagiarism can be defined as presenting someone else’s work as your own, and it is considered a violation of academic integrity. Making clear who has created which information and where to find that information is essential to increase knowledge according to the scientific method, as it allows others to verify your findings. Plagiarism is a form of scientific fraud, comparable to for example fabricating evidence or making up sources. Examples of plagiarism are:

• Submitting someone else’s work as your own
• Submitting work that you’ve collaborated on as your own
• Use your own work for multiple purposes without acknowledging this (self-plagiarism)
• Referencing in an incorrect manner:
  - Adopting parts of someone else’s work without citing the source
  - Failing to refer to a source for every instance you use it in your work
  - Failing to make clear to the reader that you are quoting or paraphrasing
  - Referring to a source in such a way that it can’t be found

To detect plagiarism, teachers can make use of a built-in plagiarism check in Canvas, or a stand-alone application. In both cases your submitted work is compared to an existing database of academic literature, sometimes including work previously handed in by students. When plagiarism is suspected, this will be reported to the examination committee of your study programme. It is not advised to use free online plagiarism checkers as they hardly detect plagiarism and are therefore misleading.

Referencing or citing can be defined as crediting the source of the ideas that you use in your work. It is important to include complete and correct information about the sources you use to prevent (unintentional) plagiarism. This can be done manually, or (partially) automated as will be explained under ‘Reference Management’. When referencing, always remember to include both of the following elements:

In-text citation: a brief citation within your text. For some reference styles, an in-text citation can be formatted as parenthetical citation (citation within parentheses) or as narrative citation (author name mentioned outside parentheses, date/page numbers within parentheses).

Examples of parenthetical citation in reference styles APA and IEEE:

• … suggested a new framework (Adams et al., 2015).
• … took a different approach [5].

Example of narrative citation in reference style APA:

• Adams et al. (2015) suggested a new framework…

Full reference: citation with all the details about a source. This reference is listed in your reference list (all sources cited in your text) or bibliography (all sources studied for your research).

Here you see two examples of full references in reference styles APA and IEEE:

• Adams, J., Johnson, M., Klaassen, G. (2015). Framework for the assessments of engineering bachelor programmes in the Netherlands. Journal of Education, 8(3), 207–217.
• [1] J. Adams, M. Johnson, and G. Klaassen, " Framework for the assessments of engineering bachelor programmes in the Netherlands," Journal of Engineering, vol. 100, pp. 234-239, 2018.

The way you format references depends on the reference style you choose. When submitting an integral piece of writing, it should be formatted consistently according to one reference style. The publisher of scientific works normally determines which style (often adapted to a specific scientific journal) a researcher should use, whereas students are either free to choose one or instructed by a lecturer to use a standardized style. As there are hundreds of styles (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago, Vancouver, Harvard), including many adaptations of more or less standardized styles, it is impossible to introduce you to all of them. Below you will find practical information for two of the most commonly used styles at this university:

APA 7^th Edition

• Disciplines: education, psychology, and social sciences
• Online guide: APA 7^th Style and Grammar Guidelines
• Article examples (open PDF): Law and Human Behavior, Journal of Applied Psychology,
• Formatting templates: APA Sample Papers (Word), Overleaf Templates (LaTex)

IEEE

• Disciplines: engineering, computer science and information technology
• Online guides: Reference Guide, Style Manual
• Article examples (open PDF): Proceedings IEEE, IEEE Transactions 
• Formatting templates: IEEE Template Selector (Word/LaTex), Overleaf Templates (LaTex)

The information you’d like to use can be integrated in your work through paraphrasing, quoting or summarizing. How much information you integrate from one source, and in which manner you do this determines the difference between citing a source correctly and plagiarizing. Examples of quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing can be found in the online guides and article examples referred to under ‘Reference Styles’.

Quoting
Taking a part of a written or spoken text straight from a source and incorporating it into your own writing. Quoting can be an option when:

• A text passage needs further analysis
• You wish to respond to someone else’s position on a certain topic 
• A statement by an authority on the topic gives your argument more credibility
• A text passage is particularly memorable or describes something in a very clear, concise manner

The manner in which quotes are formatted is remarkably similar from one reference style to another. When you quote, always make sure you:

• Enclose the text in quotation marks, or
• Format text as an indented block when quoting a large text section (e.g. 40+ words for APA)
• Make sure the text you quote is identical to the original text
• Cite the source correctly (including a page number in the in-text citation)

Paraphrasing
Incorporating  a small part (1-3 sentences) of a written or spoken text by rewriting it in your own words. In this case the information, but not its language, is important to your argument. Paraphrasing can be an option when:

• The information can be stated more concisely or clearly
• Terms are used that the reader might not be familiar with
• You wish to avoid having too many quotations in your writing

When you paraphrase, always cite the source and make sure the meaning of the text does not change. Techniques that might help you to rewrite information in your own words are: 

• Using synonyms
• Changing the structure of sentences
• Start sentences at a different point
• Breaking down a sentence in multiple sentences

Summarizing
Incorporating the main ideas expressed in a long written or spoken text passage in a significantly lower number of words. As always you need to cite the original source. Summarizing can be an option when:

• An overview of a whole work is required
• Only the highlight(s) of a whole work is/are relevant to your argument

Reference management can be defined as collecting, organizing and using references to sources in a systematic manner. Tools that can be used to this end are called reference managers. These desktop and online applications allow you to create a personal library, which can improve your workflow as follows:

• Collect references you find elsewhere to keep an overview of which sources you already found or studied
• Organize references in a way that fits your assignment or project, using folders, labels, etc.
• Save PDF’s or links to literature in your local library so you can access them easily at any time or location
• Insert and edit references in text documents (e.g. Word or LaTex) in a largely automated manner, saving you a lot of time
• Annotate attached text files so you can highlight sections important for your research
• Share references, reference libraries or text files with others to save time when collaborating

Examples of commonly used reference managers are EndNote, Zotero and Mendeley. You can use any reference manager you like, as their functionalities don’t differ much from each other. Multiple reference managers can be used alongside, but working with only will likely optimize your workflow. Below you can find practical information for EndNote, Zotero and Mendeley. 

EndNote
No need to create an account, free unlimited storage. Only free as long as you are a student/employee.

• License: licensed by University of Twente
• Developer: Clarivate Analytics
• Operating system: Windows, macOS
• Download: DISC B.V. EndNote 21
• Elaborate guide: EndNote 20 Essential Features
• Video tutorial basics: EndNote 21 in 7 Minutes

Zotero
Available for free, 300MB free storage. No account needed to use software.

• License: free to use with personal login
• Developer: open-source
• Operating system: Windows, macOS, Linux
• Download: Zotero 6.0
• Elaborate guide: Zotero manual
• Video tutorial basics: How to use Zotero

Mendeley
Available for free, 2GB free storage. Account needed to use the software.

• License: free to use with personal login
• Developer: Elsevier
• Operating system: Windows, macOS, Linux
• Download: Mendeley Reference Manager
• Elaborate guide: Getting started with Mendeley  
• Video tutorial basics: Mendeley in 25 minutes

Copyright is a form of protection provided by the law of a country, that gives the owner of a work the exclusive rights to use it. When a person creates an original work (fixed in a tangible medium of expression), that person automatically owns the copyright to this work. The purpose of copyright is to promote the progress of useful arts and science, protecting the exclusive right of authors to benefit from their works of authorship.

When you want to use a work (e.g., a picture or illustration) in for example a project report or thesis, you have to be aware of copyright and possible copyright infringement. Under normal circumstances, you are allowed to use (parts of) a work in the these situations:

• You created the work yourself (and did not transfer the copyright): using the work without crediting the source is allowed.
• The work is in the public domain: using the work without crediting the source is allowed.
• The work is created by someone else, but it is published with a license for reuse: using the work is allowed, within limitations outlined in the license.
• The work is created by someone else, but the creator has given explicit permission for usage: using the work is allowed, within limitations outlined by the creator.

Copyright infringement vs plagiarism

Copyright infringement is using the work someone else owns the copyright to without their permission. Infringement can lead to legal action from the copyright owner, in order to recover (financial) compensation for the unlawful use. Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work as your own, and - although a violation of ethical norms – is in itself not a crime by law. However, there are cases that can be qualified as both copyright infringement and plagiarism:

• When you copy a sentence from a copyrighted book without permission (copyright infringement) and you do not credit the source in your own work, implying you are the author (plagiarism).
• When you download a copyrighted video from YouTube (copyright infringement) and you use a section of it in your own video production without crediting the source, implying you created that section (plagiarism).   

Exceptions for students
Within an educational setting, you have a little more freedom when it comes to using copyrighted material. These freedoms differ per country, just as copyright laws in general differ per country. In the Netherlands, as a student you are allowed to use copyrighted material for educational purposes (e.g., in an report, presentation, poster) when:

• The purpose of the is use not only to decorate
• You do not manipulate the material
• The amount of used material fits the purpose
• The work you use has been rightfully published
• You include sufficient acknowledgement of authorship of the work

Public licenses can be defined as a standardized way to grant others permission to use creative work. Creative Commons licenses are a widely used type of public license. A work that is shared with a Creative Commons license can be recognized by:

• A small icon displaying an abbreviation of the specific license, for example ‘CC-BY’ and;
• A reference to that license, for example ‘This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License’

Restrictions on the reuse of creative work depend on the type of Creative Commons license the work is shared with. CC-BY is the least restrictive license (besides CC-0, to be discussed under public domain), which for example allows for commercial use and adaptation of a work. In this overview you can see which restrictions apply to each type of Creative Commons license.

Software is usually shared with a license developed specifically for that type of creative work. Examples of widely used open software licenses are the MIT-license and GNU Public license.

When material is in the ‘public domain’ it can be used by anyone without permission, while it cannot be owned by anyone. The following materials belong in the public domain:

• Works on which copyright protection has expired: The Berne Convention – which almost every country in the world endorses - states that all works (photographic and cinematographic excepted) are copyrighted for at least 50 years after the author's death. In Europe copyright protection expires 70 years after the death of the author, or after publication in case the author is unknown.
• Works that are not covered by copyright: general theories, facts or ideas, that are not original expressions of the creator’s ideas, thoughts or feelings. Examples are raw data (not compiled in an original way), short phrases, names or titles considered common idioms of a language, and familiar symbols.
• Works placed in the public domain: Creators can do this via a CC-0 license or by placing a statement on their work (e.g., "This work is dedicated to the Public Domain"). Databases such as Pixabay, Pexels and Unsplash offer visual material with a CC-0 license.
• Government documents: in many countries, government documents belong in the public domain. Various restrictions and exceptions might apply though. For example works cannot be used in a way that implies endorsement by the government, and works created by contractors are not in the public domain.

Personality rights protect the identity of a person. In the Netherlands, ‘portretrecht’ (portrait right) is a personality right that allows a portrayed person to prohibit publication or copying of the material in which that person is portrayed. Portrait right applies to pictures, as well as drawings or paintings that portray persons.

In principle, publishing material portraying people without permission is allowed. This applies to both works that are commissioned by the portrayed person and those that are not. Violation of the privacy of a person, or a context that shows someone in a bad light might be grounds for legal action. The other way around, the ‘freedom of information’ is a legal right that allows for example journalist to publish material portraying people because it is classified as newsworthy .

When in doubt about the implications of publishing a work portraying people for educational purposes, it is advisable to ask the subjects for their permission (if possible).